Current Problems in Cardiology
Volume 34, Issue 3 , Pages 93-136 , March 2009

Mitral Regurgitation

References 

  1. Perloff JK, Roberts WC. The mitral apparatus: functional anatomy of mitral regurgitation. Circulation. 1972;46:227–239
  2. Anderson RH, Wilcox BR. The anatomy of the mitral valve. In:  Wells FC,  Shapiro LM editor. Mitral Valve Disease. Oxford, England: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1996;p. 4
  3. Ormiston JA, Shah PM, Tei C, et al. Size and motion of the mitral valve annulus in man (I. A two-dimensional echocardiographic method and findings in normal subjects). Circulation. 1981;64:113
  4. Davis PKB, Kinmouth JB. The movements of the annulus of the mitral valve. J Cardiovasc Surg. 1963;427–431
  5. Kodavatiganti R. Intraoperative assessment of the mitral valve by transesophageal echocardiography: An overview. Ann Cardiol Anaesth. 2002;5(2):127–134
  6. Rushmer R, Finlayson B, Nash A. Movements of the mitral valve. Circul Res. 1956;4:337
  7. Carpentier A. Cardiac valve surgery—the “French correction”. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1983;86(3):323–337
  8. Bonow RO, Carabello BA, Chatterjee K, et al. ACC/AHA guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;48:1–148
  9. Lam JHC, Ranganathan N, Wigle ED, et al. Morphology of the human mitral valve I chordae Tendineae: a new classification. Circulation. 1970;41:449
  10. Condado JA, Velez-Gimon M. Catheter-based approach to mitral regurgitation. J Interv Cardiol. 2003;16(6):523–534
  11. Voci P, Bilotta F, Caretta Q, et al. Papillary muscle perfusion pattern (A hypothesis for ischemic papillary muscle dysfunction). Circulation. 1995;91(6):1714–1718
  12. Tanimoto M, Pai RG. Effect of isolated left atrial enlargement on mitral annular size and valve competence. Am J Cardiol. 1996;77(9):769–774
  13. Iung B, Baron G, Butchart EG, et al. A prospective survey of patients with valvular heart disease in Europe: the euro heart survey on valvular heart disease. Eur Heart J. 2003;24:1231–1243
  14. Rosen SE, Borer JS, Hochreiter C, et al. Natural history of the asymptomatic patients with severe mitral regurgitation secondary to mitral valve prolapse and with normal left and right ventricular function. Am J Cardiol. 1994;74:374–380
  15. Carpentier A, Chauvaud S, Fabiani J, et al. Reconstructive surgery of mitral valve incompetence: ten year appraisal. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1980;79:338
  16. Marzo KP, Herling IM. Valvular disease in the elderly. Cardiovasc Clin. 1993;23:175
  17. Carpentier AF, Pellerin M, Fuzellier JF, Relland JY. Extensive calcification of the mitral valve annulus: pathology and surgical management. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1996;111(4):718–729
  18. Olson LJ, Subramanian R, Ackermann DM, et al. Surgical pathology of the mitral valve: a study of 712 cases spanning 21 years. Mayo Clin Proc. 1987;62(1):22–34
  19. Tamura K, Fukuda Y, Ishizaki M, et al. Abnormalities in elastic fibers and other connective-tissue components of floppy mitral valve. Am Heart J. 1995;129(6):1149–1158
  20. Rabkin E, Aikawa M, Stone JR, et al. Activated interstitial myofibroblasts express catabolic enzymes and mediate matrix remodeling in myxomatous heart valves. Circulation. 2001;104(21):2525–2532
  21. Avierinos JF, Gersh BJ, Melton LJ, et al. Natural history of asymptomatic mitral valve prolapse in the community. Circulation. 2002;106(11):1355–1361
  22. Nesta F, Leyne M, Yosefy C, et al. New locus for autosomal dominant mitral valve prolapse on chromosome 13: clinical insights from genetic studies. Circulation. 2005;112(13):2022–2030
  23. Freed LA, Acierno JS, Dai D, et al. A locus for autosomal dominant mitral valve prolapse on chromosome 11p15.4. Am J Hum Genet. 2003;72(6):1551–1559
  24. Disse S, Abergel E, Berrebi A, et al. Mapping of a first locus for autosomal dominant myxomatous mitral-valve prolapse to chromosome 16p11.2-p12.1. Am J Hum Genet. 1999;65(5):1242–1251
  25. Roberts R. Another chromosomal locus for mitral valve prolapse: close but no cigar. Circulation. 2005;112(13):1924–1926
  26. Ng CM, Cheng A, Myers LA, et al. TGF-beta-dependent pathogenesis of mitral valve prolapse in a mouse model of Marfan syndrome. J Clin Invest. 2004;114(11):1586–1592
  27. Weyman AE, Scherrer-Crosbie M. Marfan syndrome and mitral valve prolapse. J Clin Invest. 2004;114(11):1543–1546
  28. Grande-Allen KJ, Griffin BP, Ratliff NB, et al. Glycosaminoglycan profiles of myxomatous mitral leaflets and chordae parallel the severity of mechanical alterations. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42(2):271–277
  29. Grande-Allen KJ, Borowski AG, Troughton RW, et al. Apparently normal mitral valves in patients with heart failure demonstrate biochemical and structural derangements: an extracellular matrix and echocardiographic study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45(1):54–61
  30. O'Brien KD, Fishbein DP. Mitral valve abnormalities in congestive heart failure: an interplay between form and function?. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45(1):62–64
  31. Barber JE, Kasper FK, Ratliff NB, et al. Mechanical properties of myxomatous mitral valves. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2001;122(5):955–962
  32. Barber JE, Ratliff NB, Cosgrove DM, et al. Myxomatous mitral valve chordae (I: Mechanical properties). J Heart Valve Dis. 2001;10(3):320–324
  33. Glesby MJ, Pyeritz RE. Association of mitral valve prolapse and systemic abnormalities of connective tissue (A phenotypic continuum). JAMA. 1989;262(4):523–528
  34. Flameng W, Herijgers P, Bogaerts K. Recurrence of mitral valve regurgitation after mitral valve repair in degenerative valve disease. Circulation. 2003;107(12):1609–1613
  35. Van der Meer JTM, Thompson J, Valkenburg HA, Michel MF. Epidemiology of bacterial endocarditis in the Netherlands. Arch Intern Med. 1992;152:1863–1868
  36. Wallace SM, Walton BI, Kharbanda RK, et al. Mortality from infective endocarditis: clinical predictors of outcome. Heart. 2002;88:53–60
  37. Verheul HA, van den Brink RB, van Vreeland T, et al. Management of active infective endocarditis and outcome in a 25-year period. Am J Cardiol. 1993;72:682–687
  38. Croft CH, Woodward W, Elliot APJ, et al. Analysis of medical versus surgical therapy in active complicated native valve endocarditis. Am J Cardiol. 1983;51:1650–1655
  39. Horstkotte D, Fillet F, Gutschik E, et al. Guidelines on prevention, diagnosis and treatment of infective endocarditis executive summary; the task force on infective endocarditis of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J. 2004;25(3):267–276
  40. Doukas G, Oc M, Alexiou C, et al. Mitral valve repair for active culture positive infective endocarditis. Heart. 2006;92(3):361–363
  41. Zegdi R, Debaucher M, Latremouille C, et al. Long-term results of mitral valve repair in active endocarditis. Circulation. 2005;111(19):2532–2536
  42. Livesey SA. Mitral valve reconstruction in the presence of infection. Heart. 2006;92(3):289–290
  43. Sternik L, Zehr KJ, Orszulak TA, et al. The advantage of repair of mitral valve in acute endocarditis. J Heart Valve Dis. 2002;11:91–98
  44. de Kerchove L, Vanoverschelde JL, Poncelet A, et al. Reconstructive surgery in active mitral valve endocarditis: feasibility, safety and durability. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2007;31:592–599
  45. Kumar AS, Talwar S, Saxena A, et al. Results of mitral valve repair in rheumatic mitral regurgitation. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg. 2006;5:356–361
  46. Hanson TP, Edwards BS, Edwards JE. Pathology of surgically excised mitral valves: one hundred consecutive cases. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1985;109:823
  47. Waller BF, Howard J, Fess S. Pathology of mitral valve stenosis and pure mitral regurgitation (Part I). Clin Cardiol. 1994;17:330
  48. Grigioni F, Enriquez-Sarano M, Ling LH, et al. Sudden death in mitral regurgitation due to flail leaflet. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999;34(7):2078–2085
  49. Rosenhek R, Rader F, Klaar U, et al. Outcome of watchful waiting in asymptomatic severe mitral regurgitation. Circulation. 2006;113(18):2238–2244
  50. Ling LH, Enriquez-Sarano M, Seward JB, et al. Clinical outcome of mitral regurgitation due to flail leaflet. N Engl J Med. 1996;335(19):1417–1423
  51. Duren DR, Becker AE, Dunning AJ. Long-term follow-up of idiopathic mitral valve prolapse in 300 patients: a prospective study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1988;11:42–47
  52. Tribouilloy CM, Enriquez-Sarano M, Schaff HV, et al. Impact of preoperative symptoms on survival after surgical correction of organic mitral regurgitation rationale for optimizing surgical indications. Circulation. 1999;99:400–405
  53. Schwammenthal E, Chen C, Benning F, et al. Dynamics of mitral regurgitant flow and orifice area (Physiologic application of the proximal flow convergence method: clinical data and experimental testing). Circulation. 1994;90(1):307–322
  54. Enriquez-Sarano M, Sinak LJ, Tajik AJ, et al. Changes in effective regurgitant orifice throughout systole in patients with mitral valve prolapse (A clinical study using the proximal isovelocity surface area method). Circulation. 1995;92(10):2951–2958
  55. Yiu SF, Enriquez-Sarano M, Tribouilloy C, et al. Determinants of the degree of functional mitral regurgitation in patients with systolic left ventricular dysfunction: a quantitative clinical study. Circulation. 2000;102(12):1400–1406
  56. Gaasch WH, Aurigemma GP. Inhibition of the renin-angiotensin system and the left ventricular adaptation to mitral regurgitation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;39(8):1380–1383
  57. Borer JS, Bonow RO. Contemporary approach to aortic and mitral regurgitation. Circulation. 2003;108(20):2432–2438
  58. Wisenbaugh T, Spann JF, Carabello BA. Differences in myocardial performance and load between patients with similar amounts of chronic aortic versus chronic mitral regurgitation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1984;3(4):916–923
  59. Grose R, Strain J, Cohen MV. Pulmonary arterial V waves in mitral regurgitation: clinical and experimental observations. Circulation. 1984;69(2):214–222
  60. Braunwald E, Awe WC. The syndrome of severe mitral regurgitation with normal left atrial pressure. Circulation. 1963;27:29–35
  61. Lapu-Bula R, Robert A, Van Craeynest D, et al. Contribution of exercise-induced mitral regurgitation to exercise stroke volume and exercise capacity in patients with left ventricular systolic dysfunction. Circulation. 2002;106(11):1342–1348
  62. Hochreiter C, Niles N, Devereux RB, et al. Mitral regurgitation: Relationship of noninvasive descriptors of right and left ventricular performance to clinical and hemodynamic findings and to prognosis in medically and surgically treated patients. Circulation. 1986;73(5):900–912
  63. Dini FL, Conti U, Fontanive P, et al. Right ventricular dysfunction is a major predictor of outcome in patients with moderate to severe mitral regurgitation and left ventricular dysfunction. Am Heart J. 2007;154(1):172–179
  64. Carabello BA, Zile MR, Tanaka R, et al. Left ventricular hypertrophy due to volume versus pressure overload. Am J Physiol. 1992;263:H1137–H1444
  65. Conway MA, Bottomley PA, Ouwerkerk R, et al. Mitral regurgitation: Impaired systolic function, eccentric hypertrophy, and increased severity are linked to lower phosphocreatine/ATP ratios in humans. Circulation. 1998;97(17):1716–1723
  66. Corin WJ, Murakami T, Monrad ES, et al. Left ventricular passive diastolic properties in chronic mitral regurgitation. Circulation. 1991;83(3):797–807
  67. Goldfine SM, Pena M, Magid NM, et al. Myocardial collagen in cardiac hypertrophy resulting from chronic aortic regurgitation. Am J Ther. 1998;5(3):139–146
  68. Grossman W. Cardiac hypertrophy: Useful adaptation or pathologic process?. Am J Med. 1980;69(4):575–584
  69. Ryan TD, Rothstein E, Aban I, et al. Left ventricular remodeling and matrix loss are mediated by bradykinin and precede cardiomyocyte elongation in rats with volume overload. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49:811–821
  70. Chandrashakhar Y. Embracing the diversity of left ventricular remodeling. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49:822–825
  71. LeGrice IJ, Smaill BH, Chai LZ, et al. Laminar structure of the heart: ventricular myocyte arrangement and connective tissue architecture in the dog. Am J Physiol. 1995;269:H571–H582
  72. Stewart JA, Wei C-C, Brower GL, et al. Cardiac mast cell and chymase mediated matrix metalloproteinase activity and left ventricular remodeling in mitral regurgitation in the dog. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2003;35:311–319
  73. Dell'Italia LJ, Meng QC, Balcells E, et al. Increased ACE and chymase-like activity in cardiac tissue of dogs with chronic mitral regurgitation. Am J Physiol. 1995;269(6 Pt. 2):H2065–H2073
  74. Dell'Italia LJ, Balcells E, Meng QC, et al. Volume-overload cardiac hypertrophy is unaffected by ACE inhibitor treatment in dogs. Am J Physiol. 1997;273:H961–H970
  75. Perry GJ, Wei CC, Su X, et al. Angiotensin II receptor blockade does not improve left ventricular function and remodeling in subacute mitral regurgitation in the dog. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;39:1374–1379
  76. Brickner ME, Starling MR. Dissociation of end systole from end ejection in patients with long-term mitral regurgitation. Circulation. 1990;81(4):1277–1286
  77. Starling MR, Kirsh MM, Montgomery DG, et al. Impaired left ventricular contractile function in patients with long-term mitral regurgitation and normal ejection fraction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1993;22(1):239–250
  78. Carabello BA, Nolan SP, McGuire LB. Assessment of preoperative left ventricular function in patients with mitral regurgitation: value of the end-systolic wall stress-end-systolic volume ratio. Circulation. 1981;64(6):1212–1217
  79. Carabello BA, Spann JF. The uses and limitations of end-systolic indexes of left ventricular function. Circulation. 1984;69(5):1058–1064
  80. Mehta RH, Supiano MA, Oral H, et al. Compared with control subjects, the systemic sympathetic nervous system is activated in patients with mitral regurgitation. Am Heart J. 2003;145(6):1078–1085
  81. Sakagoshi N, Nakano S, Taniguchi K, et al. Relation between myocardial beta-adrenergic receptor and left ventricular function in patients with left ventricular volume overload due to chronic mitral regurgitation with or without aortic regurgitation. Am J Cardiol. 1991;68(1):81–84
  82. Detaint D, Messika-Zeitoun D, Avierinos JF, et al. B-type natriuretic peptide in organic mitral regurgitation: determinants and impact on outcome. Circulation. 2005;111(18):2391–2397
  83. Sutton TM, Stewart RA, Gerber IL, West TM, Richards AM, Yandle TG, et al. Plasma natriuretic peptide levels increase with symptoms and severity of mitral regurgitation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41(12):2280–2287
  84. Oral H, Sivasubramanian N, Dyke DB, et al. Myocardial proinflammatory cytokine expression and left ventricular remodeling in patients with chronic mitral regurgitation. Circulation. 2003;107(6):831–837
  85. Leszek P, Korewicki J, Klisiewicz A, et al. Reduced myocardial expression of calcium handling protein in patients with severe chronic mitral regurgitation. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2006;30(5):737–743
  86. Pierard LA, Lancellotti P. The role of ischemic mitral regurgitation in the pathogenesis of acute pulmonary edema. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(16):1627–1634
  87. Zipes L, Bonow B. Valvular heart disease. In: Braunwald's heart disease: a textbook of cardiovascular. (ed 7). Medicine Elsevier Saunders; 2005;p. 1568–1570
  88. Folland E, Kriegel B, Henderson W, et al. Implications of third heart sounds in patients with valvular heart disease: the Veterans Affairs cooperative study on valvular heart disease. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:458–462
  89. Desjardins V, Enriquez-Sarano M, Tajik A, et al. Intensity of murmurs correlates with severity of valvular regurgitation. Am J Med. 1996;100:149–156
  90. Lembo N, Dell'italia LJ, Crawford MH, et al. Bedside diagnosis of systolic murmurs. N Engl J Med. 1988;318(24):1572–1578
  91. Goldstein MA, Michelson EL, Dreifus LS. The electrocardiogram in valvular heart disease. Cardiovasc Clin. 1993;23:55
  92. Ross RS, Criley JM. Contrast radiography in mitral regurgitation. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 1962;5:195
  93. Hurst JW. Memories of patients with a giant left atrium. Circulation. 2001;104(22):2630–2631
  94. Cheitlin MD, Armstrong WF, Aurigemma GP, et al. ACC/AHA/ASE 2003 guideline update for the clinical application of echocardiography: summary article: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice guidelines (ACC/AHA/ASE Committee to Update the 1997 guidelines for the clinical application of echocardiography). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42:954–970
  95. Carpentier A. Cardiac valve surgery—the “French correction”. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1983;86:323–337
  96. Enriquez-Sarano M, Freeman WK, Tribouilloy CM, et al. Functional anatomy of mitral regurgitation: accuracy and outcome implications of TEE. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999;34:1129–1136
  97. Otto CM. Clinical practice (Evaluation and management of chronic mitral regurgitation). N Engl J Med. 2001;345(10):740–746
  98. Spain MG, Smith MD, Grayburn PA, et al. Quantitative assessment of mitral regurgitation by Doppler color flow imaging: angiographic and hemodynamic correlations. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1989;13(3):585–590
  99. Hall SA, Brickner ME, Willett DL, et al. Assessment of mitral regurgitation severity by Doppler color flow mapping of the vena contracta. Circulation. 1997;95(3):636–642
  100. Zoghbi WA, Enriquez-Sarano M, Foster E, et al. American Society of Echocardiography (Recommendations for evaluation of the severity of native valvular regurgitation with two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography). J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2003;16:777–802
  101. Rivera M. Utility of the effective regurgitant orifice for the quantification of regurgitant valve lesions. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2006;59(10):997–999
  102. Monin J-L, Dehant P, Roiron C, et al. Functional assessment of mitral regurgitation by transthoracic echocardiography using standardized imaging planes. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;46:302–309
  103. Shiran A, Merdler A, Ismir E, et al. Intraoperative transesophageal echocardiography using a quantitative dynamic loading test for the evaluation of ischemic mitral regurgitation. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2007;20(6):690–697
  104. Gisbert A, Souliere V, Denault AY, et al. Dynamic quantitative echocardiographic evaluation of mitral regurgitation in the operating department. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2006;19(2):140–146
  105. Lee R, Haluska B, Leung DY, et al. Functional and prognostic implications of left ventricular contractile reserve in patients with asymptomatic severe mitral regurgitation. Heart. 2005;91:1407–1412
  106. Fuchs RM, Heuser RR, Yin FC, Brinker JA. Limitations of pulmonary wedge V waves in diagnosing mitral regurgitation. Am J Cardiol. 1982;49:849–854
  107. Hundley WG, Li HF, Willard JE, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging assessment of the severity of mitral regurgitation. Circulation. 1995;92:1151
  108. Stork A, Franzen O, Ruschewski H, et al. Assessment of functional anatomy of the mitral valve in patients with mitral regurgitation with cine magnetic resonance imaging: comparison with transesophageal echocardiography and surgical results. (epub ahead of print) Eur Radiol. 2007;
  109. Wilson W, Taubert KA, Gewitz M, et al. Prevention of infective endocarditis (Guidelines from the American Heart Association). Circulation. 2007;116(15):1736–1754
  110. Grayburn PA. Vasodilator therapy for chronic aortic and mitral regurgitation. Am J Med Sci. 2000;320:202–208
  111. Harris KM, Aeppli DM, Carey CF. Effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition on mitral regurgitation severity, left ventricular size, and functional capacity. Am Heart J. 2005;150(5):1106
  112. Wisenbaugh T, Sinovich V, Dullabh A, et al. Six month pilot study of captopril for mildly symptomatic, severe isolated mitral and isolated aortic regurgitation. J Heart Valve Dis. 1994;3(2):197–204
  113. Oh SH, Meyers DG. Afterload reduction may halt and beta-adrenergic blockade may worsen progression of left ventricular dysfunction in patients with chronic compensated mitral regurgitation: a retrospective cohort study. Angiology. 2007;58(2):196–202
  114. Marcotte F, Honos GN, Walling AD, et al. Effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor therapy in mitral regurgitation with normal left ventricular function. Can J Cardiol. 1997;13(5):479–485
  115. Nemoto S, Hamawaki M, DeFreitas G, et al. Differential effects of the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor lisinopril versus the beta-adrenergic receptor blocker atenolol on hemodynamics and left ventricular contractile function in experimental mitral regurgitation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40(1):149–154
  116. Tallaj J, Wei CC, Hankes GH, et al. B-1-adrenergic receptor blockade attenuates angiotensin II mediated catecholamine release into the cardiac interstitium in mitral regurgitation. Circulation. 2003;108:225–230
  117. Hankes GH, Ardell JL, Tallaj J, et al. Beta1-adrenoceptor blockade mitigates excessive norepinephrine release into cardiac interstitium in mitral regurgitation in dog. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2006;291(1):H147–H151
  118. Tsutsui H, Spinale FG, Nagatsu M, et al. Effects of chronic beta-adrenergic blockade on the left ventricular and cardiomyocyte abnormalities of chronic canine mitral regurgitation. J Clin Invest. 1994;93(6):2639–2648
  119. Starling MR. Is prophylactic beta-adrenergic blockade appropriate in mitral regurgitation: impact of cellular pathophysiology. Adv Cardiol. 2004;41:25–35
  120. Lee EM, Shapiro LM, Wells FC. Superiority of mitral valve repair in surgery for degenerative mitral regurgitation. Eur Heart J. 1997;18:655–663
  121. Enriquez Sarano M, Schaff HV, Orszulak TA, et al. Valve repair improves the outcome of surgery for mitral regurgitation (A multivariate analysis). Circulation. 1995;91:1022–1028
  122. Braunberger E, Deloche A, Berrebi A, et al. Very long-term results (more than 20 years) of valve repair with Carpentier's techniques in nonrheumatic mitral valve insufficiency. Circulation. 2001;104:I8–I11
  123. Tischler MD, Cooper KA, Rowen M, et al. Mitral valve replacement versus mitral valve repair a Doppler and quantitative stress echocardiographic study. Circulation. 1994;89:132–137
  124. Otto CM. Timing of surgery in mitral regurgitation. Heart. 2003;89(1):100–105
  125. Mohty D, Orszulak TA, Schaff HV, et al. Very long-term survival and durability of mitral valve repair for mitral valve prolapse. Circulation. 2001;104:11–17
  126. Gillinov AM, Cosgrove DM. Mitral valve repair for degenerative disease. J Heart Valve Dis. 2002;11:S15–S20
  127. Suri RM, Schaff HV, Dearani JA, et al. Recurrent mitral regurgitation after repair: should the mitral valve be re-repaired?. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2006;132(6):1390–1397
  128. Vahanian A, Baumgartner H, Bax J, et al. Task Force on the Management of Valvular Heart Disease of the European Society of Cardiology. ESC Committee for Practice guidelines (Guidelines on the management of valvular heart disease: the Task Force on the Management of Valvular Heart Disease of the European Society of Cardiology). Eur Heart J. 2007;28(2):230–268
  129. Rozich JD, Carabello BA, Usher BW, et al. Mitral valve replacement with and without chordal preservation in patients with chronic mitral regurgitation (Mechanisms for differences in postoperative ejection performance). Circulation. 1992;86:1718–1726
  130. Enriquez-Sarano M, Schaff HV, Frye RL. Mitral regurgitation: what causes the leakage is fundamental to the outcome of valve repair. Circulation. 2003;108:253–256
  131. Northrup WF. Mitral valve repair: We must do a better job. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2005;7:94–100
  132. Savage EB, Ferguson TB, DiSesa VJ. Use of mitral valve repair: analysis of contemporary US experience reported to the Society of Thoracic Surgeons national cardiac database. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003;75(3):820–825
  133. Friedewald VE, Bonow RO, Borer JS, et al. The Editor's Roundtable: cardiac valve surgery. Am J Cardiol. 2007;99(9):1269–1278
  134. Bridgewater B, Hooper T, Munsch C, et al. Mitral repair best practice: proposed standards. Heart. 2006;92(7):939–944
  135. Mirabel M, Iung B, Baron G, et al. What are the characteristics of patients with severe, symptomatic, mitral regurgitation who are denied surgery?. Eur Heart J. 2007;28(11):1358–1365
  136. Law A, Chan KL. Surgical referral in symptomatic mitral regurgitation: greater compliance with guidelines is needed. Eur Heart J. 2007;28(11):1281–1282
  137. Crawford MH, Souchek J, Oprian CA, et al. Determinants of survival and left ventricular performance after mitral valve replacement (Department of Veterans Affairs cooperative study on valvular heart disease). Circulation. 1990;81(4):1173–1181
  138. Enriquez-Sarano M, Avierinos JF, Messika-Zeitoun D, et al. Quantitative determinants of the outcome of asymptomatic mitral regurgitation. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(9):875–883
  139. Zile MR, Gaasch WH, Carroll JD, et al. Chronic mitral regurgitation: predictive value of preoperative echocardiographic indexes of left ventricular function and wall stress. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1984;3:235–242
  140. Grigioni F, Avierinos JF, Ling LH, et al. Atrial fibrillation complicating the course of degenerative mitral regurgitation determinants and long-term outcome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40:84–92
  141. Tanaka K, Ohtaki E, Matsumura T, et al. Impact of a preoperative mitral regurgitation scoring system on outcome of surgical repair for mitral valve prolapse. Am J Cardiol. 2003;92(11):1306–1309
  142. Matsumura T, Ohtaki E, Tanaka K, et al. Echocardiographic prediction of left ventricular dysfunction after mitral valve repair for mitral regurgitation as an indicator to decide the optimal timing of repair. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42(3):458–463
  143. Enriquez-Sarano M, Tajik AJ, Schaff HV, et al. Echocardiographic prediction of left ventricular function after correction of mitral regurgitation: results and clinical implications. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1994;24(6):1536–1543
  144. Mehta RH, Eagle KA, Coombs LP, et al. Influence of age on outcomes in patients undergoing mitral valve replacement. Ann Thorac Surg. 2002;74(5):1459–1467
  145. Ruel M, Kulik A, Lam BK, et al. Long term outcomes of valve replacement with modern prostheses in young adults. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2005;27:425–433
  146. DiGregorio V, Zehr KJ, Orszulak TA, et al. Results of mitral surgery in octogenarians with isolated non-rheumatic mitral regurgitation. Ann Thorac Surg. 2004;78:807–813
  147. Nagendran J, Norris C, Maitland A, et al. Is mitral valve surgery safe in octogenarians?. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2005;28(1):83–87
  148. Mack MJ. Percutaneous mitral valve repair: a fertile field of innovative treatment strategies. Circulation. 2006;113(19):2269–2271
  149. Vassiliades TA, Block PC, Cohn LH, et al. Society of Thoracic Surgeons; American Association for Thoracic Surgery; Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions (The clinical development of percutaneous heart valve technology). J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2005;129(5):970–976
  150. Palacios IF, Condado JA, Brandi S, et al. Safety and feasibility of acute percutaneous septal sinus shortening: first-in-human experience. Cathet Cardiovasc Interv. 2007;69(4):513–518
  151. Maisano F, Torracca L, Oppizzi M, et al. The edge-to-edge technique: a simplified method to correct mitral insufficiency. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 1998;13(3):240–245
  152. EVEREST Registry. Significant reduction in mitral regurgitation 12 months following percutaneous mitral valve repair: initial experience with the MitraClip device. Clin Cardiol. 2007;30(8):419
  153. Fuster V, Ryden LE, Cannom DS, et al. American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines; European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines, European Heart Rhythm Association; Heart Rhythm Society. ACC/AHA/ESC, Guidelines for the Management of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation, 2006. 2006;114(7):e257–e354
  154. Lim E, Barlow CW, Hosseinpour AR, et al. Influence of atrial fibrillation on outcome following mitral valve repair. circulation. 2001;104:I59–I63
  155. Eguchi K, Ohtaki E, Matsumura T, et al. Pre-operative atrial fibrillation as the key determinant of outcome of mitral valve repair for degenerative mitral regurgitation. Eur Heart J. 2005;26:1866–1872
  156. Ngaage DL, Schaff HV, Mullany CJ, et al. Influence of preoperative atrial fibrillation on late results of mitral repair: is concomitant ablation justified?. Ann Thorac Surg. 2007;84(2):434–442
  157. Alexiou C, Doukas G, Oc M, et al. The effect of preoperative atrial fibrillation on survival following mitral valve repair for degenerative mitral regurgitation. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2007;31(4):586–591
  158. Betriu A, Chaitman BR, Almazan A. Preoperative determinants of return to sinus rhythm after valve replacement. In:  Cohn LH,  Gallucci V editor. Cardiac Bioprosthesis. New York, NY: Yorke Medical Books; 1982;p. 184–191
  159. Chua YL, Schaff HV, Orszulak TA, et al. Outcome of mitral valve repair in patients with preoperative atrial fibrillation should the maze procedure be combined with mitral valvuloplasty?. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1994;107:408–415
  160. Raanani E, Albage A, David TE, et al. The efficacy of the Cox/maze procedure combined with mitral valve surgery a matched control study. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2001;19:438–442
  161. Nieminen MS, Bohm M, Cowie MR, et al. ESC Committee for Practice. Guideline (CpG) (Executive summary of the guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of acute heart failure: the Task Force on Acute Heart Failure of the European Society of Cardiology). Eur Heart J. 2005;26:384–416
  162. Goldman AP, Glover MU, Mick W, et al. Role of echocardiography/Doppler in cardiogenic shock: silent mitral regurgitation. Ann Thorac Surg. 1991;52(2):296–299
  163. Madu EC, D'cruz IA. The vital role of papillary muscles in mitral and ventricular function: echocardiographic insights. Clin Cardiol. 1997;20(2):93–98
  164. Castello R, Fagan L, Lenzen P, et al. Comparison of transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiography for assessment of left-sided valvular regurgitation. Am J Cardiol. 1991;68(17):1677–1680
  165. Yoran C, Yellin EL, Becker RM, et al. Mechanism of reduction of mitral regurgitation with vasodilator therapy. Am J Cardiol. 1979;43:773–777
  166. Chatterjee K, Parmley WW, Swan HJ, et al. Beneficial effects of vasodilator agents in severe mitral regurgitation due to dysfunction of subvalvar apparatus. Circulation. 1973;48:684–690
  167. Trichon BH, Felker GM, Shaw LK, et al. Relation of frequency and severity of mitral regurgitation to survival among patients with left ventricular systolic dysfunction and heart failure. Am J Cardiol. 2003;91:538–543
  168. Breithardt OA, Sinha AM, Schwammenthal E, et al. Acute effects of cardiac resynchronization therapy on functional mitral regurgitation in advanced systolic heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41:765–770
  169. Romano MA, Bolling SF. Update on mitral repair in dilated cardiomyopathy. J Cardiovasc Surg. 2004;19:396–400
  170. Wu AH, Aaronson KD, Bolling SF, et al. Impact of mitral valve annuloplasty on mortality risk in patients with mitral regurgitation and left ventricular systolic dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:381–387
  171. Mehra MR, Griffith BP. Is mitral regurgitation a viable treatment target in heart failure? (The plot just thickened). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:388-3
  172. Krum H. The task Force for the diagnosis and treatment of chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of chronic heart failure). Eur Heart J. 2005;26:2472
  173. Hunt SA, Abraham WT, Chin MH, et al. ACC/AHA 2005 guideline update for the diagnosis and management of chronic heart failure in the adult: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice guidelines (Writing Committee to Update the 2001 guidelines for the evaluation and management of heart failure): developed in collaboration with the American College of Chest Physicians and the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: endorsed by the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation. 2005;112(12):e154–e235
  174. Levine RA, Schwammenthal E. Ischemic mitral regurgitation on the threshold of a solution: from paradoxes to unifying concepts. Circulation. 2005;112:745–758
  175. Miller DC. Ischemic mitral regurgitation redux—to repair or to replace?. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2001;122:1059
  176. Connolly MW, Gelbfish JS, Jacobowitz IJ, et al. Surgical results for mitral regurgitation from coronary artery disease. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1986;91:379–388
  177. Grigioni F, Enriquez-Sarano M, Zehr KJ, et al. Ischemic mitral regurgitation: long-term outcome and prognostic implications with quantitative Doppler assessment. Circulation. 2001;103:1759–1764
  178. Iung B. Management of ischemic mitral regurgitation. Heart. 2003;89:459–464
  179. Bursi F, Enriquez-Sarano M, Nkomo VT, et al. Heart failure and death after myocardial infarction in the community the emerging role of mitral regurgitation. Circulation. 2005;111:295–301
  180. Levine RA. Dynamic mitral regurgitation—more than meets the eye. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:1681–1684
  181. Lebrun F, Lancellotti P, Piérard LA. Quantitation of functional mitral regurgitation during bicycle exercise in patients with heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;38:1685–1692
  182. Lancellotti P, Troisfontaines P, Toussaint AC, et al. Prognostic importance of exercise-induced changes in mitral regurgitation in patients with chronic ischemic left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation. 2003;108:1713–1717
  183. Tavakoli R, Weber A, Vogt P, et al. Surgical management of acute mitral valve regurgitation due to post-infarction papillary muscle rupture. J Heart Valve Dis. 2002;11(1):20–25
  184. Toils GA, Karols DP, Kopf GS, et al. Revascularization alone (without mitral valve repair) suffices in patients with advanced ischemic cardiomyopathy and mild-to-moderate mitral regurgitation. Ann Thorac Surg. 2002;74:1476–1480
  185. Kim YH, Czer LS, Soukiasian HJ, et al. Ischemic mitral regurgitation: Revascularization alone versus revascularization and mitral valve repair. Ann Thorac Surg. 2005;79:1895–2001
  186. Campwala SZ, Bansal RC, Wang N, et al. Factors affecting regression of mitral regurgitation following isolated coronary artery bypass surgery. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2005;28:104–108
  187. Gillinov AM, Wierup PN, Blackstone EH, et al. Is repair preferable to replacement for ischemic mitral regurgitation?. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2001;122:1125–1141
  188. Gillinov AM, Faber C, Houghtaling PL, et al. Repair versus replacement for degenerative mitral valve disease with coexisting ischemic heart disease. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2003;125(6):1350–1362
  189. Braun J, Bax JJ, Versteegh MI, et al. Preoperative left ventricular dimensions predict reverse remodelling following restrictive mitral annuloplasty in ischaemic mitral regurgitation. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2005;27:847–853
  190. Lam BK, Gillinov AM, Blackstone EH, et al. Importance of moderate ischemic mitral regurgitation. Ann Thorac Surg. 2005;79(2):462–470
  191. Prifti E, Bonacchi M, Frati G, et al. Should mild-to-moderate and moderate ischemic mitral regurgitation be corrected in patients with impaired left ventricular function undergoing simultaneous coronary revascularization?. J Cardiovasc Surg. 2001;16(6):473–483

 This work was supported by R01HL60707, R01HL54816 (LJD), and SCCOR in Cardiac Dysfunction P50 HL077100.

 Disclosure statement: Multiple drug companies are funding the BARI 2D and COURAGE trials.

PII: S0146-2806(08)00180-1

doi: 10.1016/j.cpcardiol.2008.11.002

Current Problems in Cardiology
Volume 34, Issue 3 , Pages 93-136 , March 2009