Current Problems in Cardiology
Volume 32, Issue 2 , Pages 51-96 , February 2007

Contrast Echocardiography

References 

  1. DeJong N, Frinking PJ, Bouakaz A, et al. Optical imaging of contrast agent microbubbles in an ultrasound field with a 100-MHz camera. Ultrasound Med Biol. 2000;26(3):487–492
  2. Dayton PA, Morgan KE, Klibanov AL, et al. Optical and acoustical observations of the effects of ultrasound on contrast agents. IEEE Trans Ultrason Ferroelect Freq Contr. 1999;46:220–232
  3. Gramiak R, Shah PM. Echocardiography of the aortic root. Invest Radiol. 1968;3(5):356–366
  4. Armstrong WF, Mueller TM, Kinney EL, et al. Assessment of myocardial perfusion abnormalities with contrast-enhanced two-dimensional echocardiography. Circulation. 1982;66(1):166–173
  5. Tei C, Sakamaki T, Shah PM, et al. Myocardial contrast echocardiography: a reproducible technique of myocardial opacification for identifying regional perfusion deficits. Circulation. 1983;67(3):585–593
  6. Kemper AJ, O’Boyle JE, Sharma S, et al. Hydrogen peroxide contrast-enhanced two-dimensional echocardiography: real-time in vivo delineation of regional myocardial perfusion. Circulation. 1983;68(3):603–611
  7. Feinstein SB, Ten Cate FJ, Zwehl W, et al. Two-dimensional contrast echocardiography (I. In vitro development and quantitative analysis of echo contrast agents). J Am Coll Cardiol. 1984;3(1):14–20
  8. Kassab GS, Fung YC. Topology and dimensions of pig coronary capillary network. Am J Physiol. 1994;267(1 Pt. 2):H319–H325
  9. Ono T, Shimohara Y, Okada K, et al. Scanning electron microscopic studies on microvascular architecture of human coronary vessels by corrosion casts: normal and focal necrosis. Scan Electron Microsc. 1986;(Pt. 1):263–270
  10. Gillam LD, Kaul S, Fallon JT, et al. Functional and pathologic effects of multiple echocardiographic contrast injections on the myocardium, brain and kidney. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1985;6(3):687–694
  11. Moore CA, Smucker ML, Kaul S. Myocardial contrast echocardiography in humans: I (Safety—a comparison with routine coronary arteriography). J Am Coll Cardiol. 1986;8(5):1066–1072
  12. Lang RM, Borow KM, Neumann A, et al. Effect of intracoronary injections of sonicated microbubbles on left ventricular contractility. Am J Cardiol. 1987;60(1):166–171
  13. Keller MW, Glasheen W, Teja K, et al. Myocardial contrast echocardiography without significant hemodynamic effects or reactive hyperemia: a major advantage in the imaging of regional myocardial perfusion. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1988;12(4):1039–1047
  14. Christiansen C, Kryvi H, Sontum PC, et al. Physical and biochemical characterization of Albunex, a new ultrasound contrast agent consisting of air-filled albumin microspheres suspended in a solution of human albumin. Biotechnol Appl Biochem. 1994;19(Pt 3):307–320
  15. Keller MW, Glasheen W, Kaul S. Albunex: a safe and effective commercially produced agent for myocardial contrast echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1989;2(1):48–52
  16. Ten Cate FJ, Widimsky P, Cornel JH, et al. Intracoronary albunex (Its effects on left ventricular hemodynamics, function, and coronary sinus flow in humans). Circulation. 1993;88(5 Pt. 1):2123–2127
  17. Forsberg F, Shi WT. Physics of contrast microbubbles. In:  Goldberg BB,  Raichlen JS,  Forsberg F editor. Ultrasound Contrast Agents. 2nd ed.. London: Martin Dunitz Ltd; 2001;p. 15–24
  18. DeJong N, Bouakaz A, Frinking P. Basic acoustic properties of microbubbles. Echocardiography. 2002;19(3):229–240
  19. Lindner JR, Dent JM, Moos SP, et al. Enhancement of left ventricular cavity opacification by harmonic imaging after venous injection of Albunex. Am J Cardiol. 1997;79(12):1657–1662
  20. Wible JH, Wojdyla JK, Bales GL, et al. Inhaled gases affect the ultrasound contrast produced by Albunex in anesthetized dogs. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1996;9(4):442–451
  21. Epstein PS, Plesset MS. On the stability of gas bubbles in liquid-gas solutions. J Chem Phys. 1950;18:1505–1509
  22. Kabalnov A, Klein D, Pelura T, et al. Dissolution of multicomponent microbubbles in the bloodstream: 1 (Theory). Ultrasound Med Biol. 1998;24(5):739–749
  23. Jayaweera AR, Edwards N, Glasheen WP, et al. In vivo myocardial kinetics of air-filled albumin microbubbles during myocardial contrast echocardiography (Comparison with radiolabeled red blood cells). Circ Res. 1994;74(6):1157–1165
  24. Lindner JR, Song J, Jayaweera AR, et al. Microvascular rheology of Definity microbubbles after intra-arterial and intravenous administration. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2002;15(5):396–403
  25. Keller MW, Segal SS, Kaul S, et al. The behavior of sonicated albumin microbubbles within the microcirculation: a basis for their use during myocardial contrast echocardiography. Circ Res. 1989;65(2):458–467
  26. Skyba DM, Camarano G, Goodman NC, et al. Hemodynamic characteristics, myocardial kinetics and microvascular rheology of FS-069, a second-generation echocardiographic contrast agent capable of producing myocardial opacification from a venous injection. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;28(5):1292–1300
  27. Kaufmann BA, Behm C, Klibanov A, et al. High-resolution myocardial perfusion imaging in mice by microbubble depot and delayed opacification. J Am Soc Echocardiogr (in press).
  28. DeJong N, Hoff L, Skotland T, et al. Absorption and scatter of encapsulated gas filled microspheres: theoretical considerations and some measurements. Ultrasonics. 1992;30(2):95–103
  29. Leong-Poi H, Song J, Rim SJ, et al. Influence of microbubble shell properties on ultrasound signal: implications for low-power perfusion imaging. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2002;15(10 Pt. 2):1269–1276
  30. Sboros V, Moran CM, Anderson T, et al. An in vitro comparison of ultrasonic contrast agents in solutions with varying air levels. Ultrasound Med Biol. 2000;26(5):807–818
  31. DeJong N, Bouakaz A, Frinking P. Basic acoustic properties of microbubbles. Echocardiography. 2002;19(3):229–240
  32. Burns PN. Harmonic imaging with ultrasound contrast agents. Clin Radiol. 1996;51(suppl 1):50–55
  33. Firschke C, Lindner JR, Wei K, et al. Myocardial perfusion imaging in the setting of coronary artery stenosis and acute myocardial infarction using venous injection of a second-generation echocardiographic contrast agent. Circulation. 1997;96(3):959–967
  34. Porter TR, Xie F, Kricsfeld D, et al. Improved myocardial contrast with second harmonic transient ultrasound response imaging in humans using intravenous perfluorocarbon-exposed sonicated dextrose albumin. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;27(6):1497-1
  35. Lindner JR, Firschke C, Wei K, et al. Myocardial perfusion characteristics and hemodynamic profile of MRX-115, a venous echocardiographic contrast agent, during acute myocardial infarction. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1998;11(1):36–46
  36. Chomas JE, Dayton P, Allen J, et al. Mechanisms of contrast agent destruction. IEEE Trans Ultrason Ferroelectr Freq Control. 2001;48(1):232–248
  37. Borden MA, Kruse DE, Caskey CF, et al. Influence of lipid shell physicochemical properties on ultrasound-induced microbubble destruction. IEEE Trans Ultrason Ferroelectr Freq Control. 2005;52(11):1992–2002
  38. Sklenar J, Jayaweera AR, Kaul S. A computer-aided approach for the quantitation of regional left ventricular function using two-dimensional echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1992;5(1):33–40
  39. Becher H, Burns PN. In: Handbook of contrast echocardiography. Berlin: Springer; 2000;p. 145
  40. Masugata H, Peters B, Lafitte S, et al. Quantitative assessment of myocardial perfusion during graded coronary stenosis by real-time myocardial contrast echo refilling curves. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37(1):262–269
  41. Mor-Avi V, Caiani EG, Collins KA, et al. Combined assessment of myocardial perfusion and regional left ventricular function by analysis of contrast-enhanced power modulation images. Circulation. 2001;104(3):352–357
  42. Reilly JP, Tunick PA, Timmermans RJ, et al. Contrast echocardiography clarifies uninterpretable wall motion in intensive care unit patients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;35(2):485–490
  43. Crouse LJ, Cheirif J, Hanly DE, et al. Opacification and border delineation improvement in patients with suboptimal endocardial border definition in routine echocardiography: results of the Phase III Albunex Multicenter Trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1993;22(5):1494–1500
  44. Rainbird AJ, Mulvagh SL, Oh JK, et al. Contrast dobutamine stress echocardiography: clinical practice assessment in 300 consecutive patients. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2001;14(5):378–385
  45. Lindner JR, Dent JM, Moos SP, et al. Enhancement of left ventricular cavity opacification by harmonic imaging after venous injection of Albunex. Am J Cardiol. 1997;79(12):1657–1662
  46. Rainbird AJ, Mulvagh SL, Oh JK, et al. Contrast dobutamine stress echocardiography: clinical practice assessment in 300 consecutive patients. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2001;14(5):378–385
  47. Hundley WG, Kizilbash AM, Afridi I, et al. Administration of an intravenous perfluorocarbon contrast agent improves echocardiographic determination of left ventricular volumes and ejection fraction: comparison with cine magnetic resonance imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998;32(5):1426–1432
  48. Hoffmann R, von BS, ten CF, et al. Assessment of systolic left ventricular function: a multi-centre comparison of cineventriculography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, unenhanced and contrast-enhanced echocardiography. Eur Heart J. 2005;26(6):607–616
  49. Thomson HL, Basmadjian AJ, Rainbird AJ, et al. Contrast echocardiography improves the accuracy and reproducibility of left ventricular remodeling measurements: a prospective, randomly assigned, blinded study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;38(3):867–875
  50. Rainbird AJ, Mulvagh SL, Oh JK, et al. Contrast dobutamine stress echocardiography: clinical practice assessment in 300 consecutive patients. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2001;14(5):378–385
  51. Dolan MS, Riad K, El-Shafei A, et al. Effect of intravenous contrast for left ventricular opacification and border definition on sensitivity and specificity of dobutamine stress echocardiography compared with coronary angiography in technically difficult patients. Am Heart J. 2001;142(5):908–915
  52. Hoffmann R, von BS, Kasprzak JD, et al. Analysis of regional left ventricular function by cineventriculography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, and unenhanced and contrast-enhanced echocardiography: a multicenter comparison of methods. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47(1):121–128
  53. Shaw LJ, Gillam L, Feinstein S, et al. Use of an intravenous contrast agent (Optison) to enhance echocardiography: efficacy and cost implications (Optison Multicenter Study Group). Am J Manag Care. 1998;4(Spec. No.):SP169–SP176
  54. Thanigaraj S, Nease RF, Schechtman KB, et al. Use of contrast for image enhancement during stress echocardiography is cost-effective and reduces additional diagnostic testing. Am J Cardiol. 2001;87(12):1430–1432
  55. Skyba DM, Jayaweera AR, Goodman NC, et al. Quantification of myocardial perfusion with myocardial contrast echocardiography during left atrial injection of contrast (Implications for venous injection). Circulation. 1994;90(3):1513–1521
  56. Kassab GS, Lin DH, Fung YC. Morphometry of pig coronary venous system. Am J Physiol. 1994;267(6 Pt. 2):H2100–H2113
  57. Lindner JR, Villanueva FS, Dent JM, et al. Assessment of resting perfusion with myocardial contrast echocardiography: theoretical and practical considerations. Am Heart J. 2000;139(2 Pt. 1):231–240
  58. Wei K, Skyba DM, Firschke C, et al. Interactions between microbubbles and ultrasound: in vitro and in vivo observations. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;29(5):1081–1088
  59. Wei K, Jayaweera AR, Firoozan S, et al. Quantification of myocardial blood flow with ultrasound-induced destruction of microbubbles administered as a constant venous infusion. Circulation. 1998;97(5):473–483
  60. Yano A, Ito H, Iwakura K, et al. Myocardial contrast echocardiography with a new calibration method can estimate myocardial viability in patients with myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;43(10):1799–1806
  61. Vogel R, Indermuhle A, Reinhardt J, et al. The quantification of absolute myocardial perfusion in humans by contrast echocardiography: algorithm and validation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45(5):754–762
  62. Kaul S, Pandian NG, Guerrero JL, et al. Effects of selectively altering collateral driving pressure on regional perfusion and function in occluded coronary bed in the dog. Circ Res. 1987;61(1):77–85
  63. Piek JJ, Becker AE. Collateral blood supply to the myocardium at risk in human myocardial infarction: a quantitative postmortem assessment. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1988;11(6):1290–1296
  64. Levin DC. Pathways and functional significance of the coronary collateral circulation. Circulation. 1974;50(4):831–837
  65. Verma S, Fedak PW, Weisel RD, et al. Fundamentals of reperfusion injury for the clinical cardiologist. Circulation. 2002;105(20):2332–2336
  66. Sabia P, Afrookteh A, Touchstone DA, et al. Value of regional wall motion abnormality in the emergency room diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction (A prospective study using two-dimensional echocardiography). Circulation. 1991;84(suppl 3):I85–I92
  67. Short D. The earliest electrocardiographic evidence of myocardial infarction. Br Heart J. 1970;32(1):6–15
  68. Zarling EJ, Sexton H, Milnor P. Failure to diagnose acute myocardial infarction (The clinicopathologic experience at a large community hospital). JAMA. 1983;250(9):1177–1181
  69. Antman EM, Cohen M, Bernink PJ, et al. The TIMI risk score for unstable angina/non-ST elevation MI: a method for prognostication and therapeutic decision making. JAMA. 2000;284(7):835–842
  70. Lee TH, Rouan GW, Weisberg MC, et al. Clinical characteristics and natural history of patients with acute myocardial infarction sent home from the emergency room. Am J Cardiol. 1987;60(4):219–224
  71. Rinkevich D, Kaul S, Wang XQ, et al. Regional left ventricular perfusion and function in patients presenting to the emergency department with chest pain and no ST-segment elevation. Eur Heart J. 2005;26(16):1606–1611
  72. Tong KL, Kaul S, Wang XQ, et al. Myocardial contrast echocardiography versus thrombolysis in myocardial infarction score in patients presenting to the emergency department with chest pain and a nondiagnostic electrocardiogram. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;46(5):920–927
  73. Kaul S, Pandian NG, Okada RD, et al. Contrast echocardiography in acute myocardial ischemia: I (In vivo determination of total left ventricular “area at risk”). J Am Coll Cardiol. 1984;4(6):1272–1282
  74. Kaul S, Gillam LD, Weyman AE. Contrast echocardiography in acute myocardial ischemia (II. The effect of site of injection of contrast agent on the estimation of area at risk for necrosis after coronary occlusion). J Am Coll Cardiol. 1985;6(4):825–830
  75. Firschke C, Lindner JR, Goodman NC, et al. Myocardial contrast echocardiography in acute myocardial infarction using aortic root injections of microbubbles in conjunction with harmonic imaging: potential application in the cardiac catheterization laboratory. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;29(1):207–216
  76. Lindner JR, Firschke C, Wei K, et al. Myocardial perfusion characteristics and hemodynamic profile of MRX-115, a venous echocardiographic contrast agent, during acute myocardial infarction. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1998;11(1):36–46
  77. Grayburn PA, Erickson JM, Escobar J, et al. Peripheral intravenous myocardial contrast echocardiography using a 2% dodecafluoropentane emulsion: identification of myocardial risk area and infarct size in the canine model of ischemia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995;26(5):1340–1347
  78. Leong-Poi H, Rim SJ, Le DE, et al. Perfusion versus function: the ischemic cascade in demand ischemia: implications of single-vessel versus multivessel stenosis. Circulation. 2002;105(8):987–992
  79. Micari A, Belcik TA, Balcells EA, et al. Improvement in microvascular reflow and reduction of infarct size with adenosine in patients undergoing primary coronary stenting. Am J Cardiol. 2005;96(10):1410–1415
  80. Schaper W, Frenzel H, Hort W. Experimental coronary artery occlusion (I. Measurement of infarct size). Basic Res Cardiol. 1979;74(1):46–53
  81. Gewirtz H, Fischman AJ, Abraham S, et al. Positron emission tomographic measurements of absolute regional myocardial blood flow permits identification of nonviable myocardium in patients with chronic myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1994;23(4):851–859
  82. Coggins MP, Sklenar J, Le DE, et al. Noninvasive prediction of ultimate infarct size at the time of acute coronary occlusion based on the extent and magnitude of collateral-derived myocardial blood flow. Circulation. 2001;104(20):2471–2477
  83. Balcells E, Powers ER, Lepper W, et al. Detection of myocardial viability by contrast echocardiography in acute infarction predicts recovery of resting function and contractile reserve. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41(5):827–833
  84. Califf RM, O’Neil W, Stack RS, et al. Failure of simple clinical measurements to predict perfusion status after intravenous thrombolysis. Ann Intern Med. 1988;108(5):658–662
  85. Kloner RA, Ganote CE, Jennings RB. The “no-reflow” phenomenon after temporary coronary occlusion in the dog. J Clin Invest. 1974;54(6):1496–1508
  86. White FC, Sanders M, Bloor CM. Regional redistribution of myocardial blood flow after coronary occlusion and reperfusion in the conscious dog. Am J Cardiol. 1978;42(2):234–243
  87. West PN, Connors JP, Clark RE, et al. Compromised microvascular integrity in ischemic myocardium. Lab Invest. 1978;38(6):677–684
  88. Villanueva FS, Glasheen WP, Sklenar J, et al. Assessment of risk area during coronary occlusion and infarct size after reperfusion with myocardial contrast echocardiography using left and right atrial injections of contrast. Circulation. 1993;88(2):596-4
  89. Ragosta M, Camarano G, Kaul S, et al. Microvascular integrity indicates myocellular viability in patients with recent myocardial infarction (New insights using myocardial contrast echocardiography). Circulation. 1994;89(6):2562–2569
  90. Sakuma T, Okada T, Hayashi Y, et al. Optimal time for predicting left ventricular remodeling after successful primary coronary angioplasty in acute myocardial infarction using serial myocardial contrast echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging. Circ J. 2002;66(7):685–690
  91. Ito H, Okamura A, Iwakura K, et al. Myocardial perfusion patterns related to thrombolysis in myocardial infarction perfusion grades after coronary angioplasty in patients with acute anterior wall myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1996;93(11):1993–1999
  92. Iwakura K, Ito H, Takiuchi S, et al. Alternation in the coronary blood flow velocity pattern in patients with no reflow and reperfused acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1996;94(6):1269–1275
  93. Kamp O, Lepper W, Vanoverschelde JL, et al. Serial evaluation of perfusion defects in patients with a first acute myocardial infarction referred for primary PTCA using intravenous myocardial contrast echocardiography. Eur Heart J. 2001;22(16):1485–1495
  94. Porter TR, Li S, Oster R, et al. The clinical implications of no reflow demonstrated with intravenous perfluorocarbon containing microbubbles following restoration of Thrombolysis In Myocardial Infarction (TIMI) 3 flow in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol. 1998;82(10):1173–1177
  95. Ito H, Maruyama A, Iwakura K, et al. Clinical implications of the ‘no reflow’ phenomenon (A predictor of complications and left ventricular remodeling in reperfused anterior wall myocardial infarction). Circulation. 1996;93(2):223–228
  96. Sakuma T, Hayashi Y, Sumii K, et al. Prediction of short- and intermediate-term prognoses of patients with acute myocardial infarction using myocardial contrast echocardiography one day after recanalization. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998;32(4):890–897
  97. Swinburn JM, Lahiri A, Senior R. Intravenous myocardial contrast echocardiography predicts recovery of dysynergic myocardium early after acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;38(1):19–25
  98. Andrassy P, Zielinska M, Busch R, et al. Myocardial blood volume and the amount of viable myocardium early after mechanical reperfusion of acute myocardial infarction: prospective study using venous contrast echocardiography. Heart. 2002;87(4):350–355
  99. Janardhanan R, Swinburn JM, Greaves K, et al. Usefulness of myocardial contrast echocardiography using low-power continuous imaging early after acute myocardial infarction to predict late functional left ventricular recovery. Am J Cardiol. 2003;92(5):493–497
  100. Ragosta M, Camarano G, Kaul S, et al. Microvascular integrity indicates myocellular viability in patients with recent myocardial infarction (New insights using myocardial contrast echocardiography). Circulation. 1994;89(6):2562–2569
  101. Lepper W, Hoffmann R, Kamp O, et al. Assessment of myocardial reperfusion by intravenous myocardial contrast echocardiography and coronary flow reserve after primary percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty [correction of angiography] in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2000;101(20):2368–2374
  102. Main ML, Magalski A, Chee NK, et al. Full-motion pulse inversion power Doppler contrast echocardiography differentiates stunning from necrosis and predicts recovery of left ventricular function after acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;38(5):1390–1394
  103. Janardhanan R, Moon JC, Pennell DJ, et al. Myocardial contrast echocardiography accurately reflects transmurality of myocardial necrosis and predicts contractile reserve after acute myocardial infarction. Am Heart J. 2005;149(2):355–362
  104. Jeetley P, Swinburn J, Hickman M, et al. Myocardial contrast echocardiography predicts left ventricular remodelling after acute myocardial infarction. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2004;17(10):1030–1036
  105. Main ML, Hannen MN, Kusnetzky LL, et al. Myocardial contrast echocardiographic estimates of infarct size predict likelihood of left ventricular remodeling after acute anterior wall myocardial infarction. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2006;19(1):64–70
  106. Micari A, Sklenar J, Belcik TA, et al. Automated quantification of the spatial extent of perfusion defects and viability on myocardial contrast echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2006;19(4):379–385
  107. Pasquet A, Robert A, D’hondt AM, et al. Prognostic value of myocardial ischemia and viability in patients with chronic left ventricular ischemic dysfunction. Circulation. 1999;100(2):141–148
  108. Afridi I, Grayburn PA, Panza JA, et al. Myocardial viability during dobutamine echocardiography predicts survival in patients with coronary artery disease and severe left ventricular systolic dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998;32(4):921–926
  109. Senior R, Kaul S, Lahiri A. Myocardial viability on echocardiography predicts long-term survival after revascularization in patients with ischemic congestive heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999;33(7):1848–1854
  110. Gropler RJ, Bergmann SR. Myocardial viability—what is the definition?. J Nucl Med. 1991;32(1):10–12
  111. Lieberman AN, Weiss JL, Jugdutt BI, et al. Two-dimensional echocardiography and infarct size: relationship of regional wall motion and thickening to the extent of myocardial infarction in the dog. Circulation. 1981;63(4):739–746
  112. Myers JH, Stirling MC, Choy M, et al. Direct measurement of inner and outer wall thickening dynamics with epicardial echocardiography. Circulation. 1986;74(1):164–172
  113. Rizzello V, Poldermans D, Boersma E, et al. Opposite patterns of left ventricular remodeling after coronary revascularization in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy: role of myocardial viability. Circulation. 2004;110(16):2383–2388
  114. Samady H, Elefteriades JA, Abbott BG, et al. Failure to improve left ventricular function after coronary revascularization for ischemic cardiomyopathy is not associated with worse outcome. Circulation. 1999;100(12):1298–1304
  115. Shimoni S, Frangogiannis NG, Aggeli CJ, et al. Microvascular structural correlates of myocardial contrast echocardiography in patients with coronary artery disease and left ventricular dysfunction: implications for the assessment of myocardial hibernation. Circulation. 2002;106(8):950–956
  116. Shimoni S, Frangogiannis NG, Aggeli CJ, et al. Identification of hibernating myocardium with quantitative intravenous myocardial contrast echocardiography: comparison with dobutamine echocardiography and thallium-201 scintigraphy. Circulation. 2003;107(4):538–544
  117. Nagueh SF, Vaduganathan P, Ali N, et al. Identification of hibernating myocardium: comparative accuracy of myocardial contrast echocardiography, rest-redistribution thallium-201 tomography and dobutamine echocardiography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;29(5):985–993
  118. Korosoglou G, Hansen A, Hoffend J, et al. Comparison of real-time myocardial contrast echocardiography for the assessment of myocardial viability with fluorodeoxyglucose-18 positron emission tomography and dobutamine stress echocardiography. Am J Cardiol. 2004;94(5):570–576
  119. deFilippi CR, Willett DL, Irani WN, et al. Comparison of myocardial contrast echocardiography and low-dose dobutamine stress echocardiography in predicting recovery of left ventricular function after coronary revascularization in chronic ischemic heart disease. Circulation. 1995;92(10):2863–2868
  120. Meza MF, Ramee S, Collins T, et al. Knowledge of perfusion and contractile reserve improves the predictive value of recovery of regional myocardial function postrevascularization: a study using the combination of myocardial contrast echocardiography and dobutamine echocardiography. Circulation. 1997;96(10):3459–3465
  121. Jarhult J, Mellander S. Autoregulation of capillary hydrostatic pressure in skeletal muscle during regional arterial hypo- and hypertension. Acta Physiol Scand. 1974;91(1):32–41
  122. Johnson PC. Autoregulation of blood flow. Circ Res. 1986;59(5):483–495
  123. Ismail S, Jayaweera AR, Goodman NC, et al. Detection of coronary stenoses and quantification of the degree and spatial extent of blood flow mismatch during coronary hyperemia with myocardial contrast echocardiography. Circulation. 1995;91(3):821–830
  124. Wei K, Jayaweera AR, Firoozan S, et al. Basis for detection of stenosis using venous administration of microbubbles during myocardial contrast echocardiography: bolus or continuous infusion?. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998;32(1):252–260
  125. Ronderos RE, Boskis M, Chung N, et al. Correlation between myocardial perfusion abnormalities detected with intermittent imaging using intravenous perfluorocarbon microbubbles and radioisotope imaging during high-dose dipyridamole stress echo. Clin Cardiol. 2002;25(3):103–111
  126. Wei K, Crouse L, Weiss J, et al. Comparison of usefulness of dipyridamole stress myocardial contrast echocardiography to technetium-99m sestamibi single-photon emission computed tomography for detection of coronary artery disease (PB127 Multicenter Phase 2 Trial results). Am J Cardiol. 2003;91(11):1293–1298
  127. Wei K, Ragosta M, Thorpe J, et al. Noninvasive quantification of coronary blood flow reserve in humans using myocardial contrast echocardiography. Circulation. 2001;103(21):2560–2565
  128. Peltier M, Vancraeynest D, Pasquet A, et al. Assessment of the physiologic significance of coronary disease with dipyridamole real-time myocardial contrast echocardiography (Comparison with technetium-99m sestamibi single-photon emission computed tomography and quantitative coronary angiography). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;43(2):257–264
  129. Jeetley P, Hickman M, Kamp O, et al. Myocardial contrast echocardiography for the detection of coronary artery stenosis: a prospective multicenter study in comparison with single-photon emission computed tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47(1):141–145
  130. Dawson D, Vincent MA, Barrett EJ, et al. Vascular recruitment in skeletal muscle during exercise and hyperinsulinemia assessed by contrast ultrasound. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2002;282(3):E714–E720
  131. Bragadeesh T, Sari I, Pascotto M, et al. Detection of peripheral vascular stenosis by assessing skeletal muscle flow reserve. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45(5):780–785
  132. Shimoni S, Zoghbi WA, Xie F, et al. Real-time assessment of myocardial perfusion and wall motion during bicycle and treadmill exercise echocardiography: comparison with single photon emission computed tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37(3):741–747
  133. Porter TR, Xie F, Silver M, et al. Real-time perfusion imaging with low mechanical index pulse inversion Doppler imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37(3):748–753
  134. Elhendy A, O’Leary EL, Xie F, et al. Comparative accuracy of real-time myocardial contrast perfusion imaging and wall motion analysis during dobutamine stress echocardiography for the diagnosis of coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;44(11):2185–2191
  135. Bragadeesh T, Sari I, Pascotto M, et al. Detection of peripheral vascular stenosis by assessing skeletal muscle flow reserve. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45(5):780–785
  136. Leong-Poi H, Christiansen J, Heppner P, et al. Assessment of endogenous and therapeutic arteriogenesis by contrast ultrasound molecular imaging of integrin expression. Circulation. 2005;111(24):3248–3254
  137. Villanueva FS, Abraham JA, Schreiner GF, et al. Myocardial contrast echocardiography can be used to assess the microvascular response to vascular endothelial growth factor-121. Circulation. 2002;105(6):759–765
  138. Lindner JR. Molecular imaging with contrast ultrasound and targeted microbubbles. J Nucl Cardiol. 2004;11(2):215–221
  139. Villanueva FS, Wagner WR, Vannan MA, et al. Targeted ultrasound imaging using microbubbles. Cardiol Clin. 2004;22(2):283–298vii
  140. Bekeredjian R, Grayburn PA, Shohet RV. Use of ultrasound contrast agents for gene or drug delivery in cardiovascular medicine. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45(3):329–335
  141. Tsutsui JM, Xie F, Porter RT. The use of microbubbles to target drug delivery. Cardiovasc Ultrasound. 2004;2(1):23
  142. Jayaweera AR, Wei K, Coggins M, et al. Role of capillaries in determining CBF reserve: new insights using myocardial contrast echocardiography. Am J Physiol. 1999;277(6 Pt. 2):H2363–H2372
  143. Bin JP, Pelberg RA, Wei K, et al. Relation between regional function and coronary blood flow reserve in chronic multivessel coronary artery stenosis. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2000;279(1):H167774

 Disclosures: Jonathan R. Lindner, Scientific Advisory Board, VisualSonics, Inc. US Patent 60/735517. Beat A. Kaufmann, US Patent 60/735517

PII: S0146-2806(06)00155-1

doi: 10.1016/j.cpcardiol.2006.10.004

Current Problems in Cardiology
Volume 32, Issue 2 , Pages 51-96 , February 2007